The evolution and ecology of multiple antipredator defences.

Prey seldom rely on a single type of antipredator defence, often using multiple defences to avoid predation. In many cases, selection in different contexts may favour the evolution of multiple defences in a prey. However, a prey may use multiple defences to protect itself during a single predator encounter. Such "defence portfolios" that defend prey against a single instance of predation are distributed across and within successive stages of the predation sequence (encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation and consumption). We contend that at present, our understanding of defence portfolio evolution is incomplete, and seen from the fragmentary perspective of specific sensory systems (e.g., visual) or specific types of defences (especially aposematism). In this review, we aim to build a comprehensive framework for conceptualizing the evolution of multiple prey defences, beginning with hypotheses for the evolution of multiple defences in general, and defence portfolios in particular. We then examine idealized models of resource trade-offs and functional interactions between traits, along with evidence supporting them. We find that defence portfolios are constrained by resource allocation to other aspects of life history, as well as functional incompatibilities between different defences. We also find that selection is likely to favour combinations of defences that have synergistic effects on predator behaviour and prey survival. Next, we examine specific aspects of prey ecology, genetics and development, and predator cognition that modify the predictions of current hypotheses or introduce competing hypotheses. We outline schema for gathering data on the distribution of prey defences across species and geography, determining how multiple defences are produced, and testing the proximate mechanisms by which multiple prey defences impact predator behaviour. Adopting these approaches will strengthen our understanding of multiple defensive strategies.

Regularly occurring bouts of retinal movements suggest an REM sleep-like state in jumping spiders.

Sleep and sleep-like states are present across the animal kingdom, with recent studies convincingly demonstrating sleep-like states in arthropods, nematodes, and even cnidarians. However, the existence of different sleep phases across taxa is as yet unclear. In particular, the study of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is still largely centered on terrestrial vertebrates, particularly mammals and birds. The most salient indicator of REM sleep is the movement of eyes during this phase. Movable eyes, however, have evolved only in a limited number of lineages-an adaptation notably absent in insects and most terrestrial arthropods-restricting cross-species comparisons. Jumping spiders, however, possess movable retinal tubes to redirect gaze, and in newly emerged spiderlings, these movements can be directly observed through their temporarily translucent exoskeleton. Here, we report evidence for an REM sleep-like state in a terrestrial invertebrate: periodic bouts of retinal movements coupled with limb twitching and stereotyped leg curling behaviors during nocturnal resting in a jumping spider. Observed retinal movement bouts were consistent, including regular durations and intervals, with both increasing over the course of the night. That these characteristic REM sleep-like behaviors exist in a highly visual, long-diverged lineage further challenges our understanding of this sleep state. Comparisons across such long-diverged lineages likely hold important questions and answers about the visual brain as well as the origin, evolution, and function of REM sleep.

Perception of biological motion by jumping spiders.

The body of most creatures is composed of interconnected joints. During motion, the spatial location of these joints changes, but they must maintain their distances to one another, effectively moving semirigidly. This pattern, termed "biological motion" in the literature, can be used as a visual cue, enabling many animals (including humans) to distinguish animate from inanimate objects. Crucially, even artificially created scrambled stimuli, with no recognizable structure but that maintains semirigid movement patterns, are perceived as animated. However, to date, biological motion perception has only been reported in vertebrates. Due to their highly developed visual system and complex visual behaviors, we investigated the capability of jumping spiders to discriminate biological from nonbiological motion using point-light display stimuli. These kinds of stimuli maintain motion information while being devoid of structure. By constraining spiders on a spherical treadmill, we simultaneously presented 2 point-light displays with specific dynamic traits and registered their preference by observing which pattern they turned toward. Spiders clearly demonstrated the ability to discriminate between biological motion and random stimuli, but curiously turned preferentially toward the latter. However, they showed no preference between biological and scrambled displays, results that match responses produced by vertebrates. Crucially, spiders turned toward the stimuli when these were only visible by the lateral eyes, evidence that this task may be eye specific. This represents the first demonstration of biological motion recognition in an invertebrate, posing crucial questions about the evolutionary history of this ability and complex visual processing in nonvertebrate systems.

Hanging by a thread: unusual nocturnal resting behaviour in a jumping spider.

BACKGROUND: For diurnal animals that heavily rely on vision, a nocturnal resting strategy that offers protection when vision is compromised, is crucial. We found a population of a common European jumping spider (Evarcha arcuata) that rests at night by suspending themselves from a single silk thread attached overhead to the vegetation, a strategy categorically unlike typical retreat-based resting in this group. RESULTS: In a comprehensive study, we collected the first quantitative field and qualitative observation data of this surprising behaviour and provide a detailed description. We tested aspects of site fidelity and disturbance response in the field to assess potential functions of suspended resting. Spiders of both sexes and all developmental stages engage in this nocturnal resting strategy. Interestingly, individual spiders are equally able to build typical silk retreats and thus actively choose between different strategies inviting questions about what factors underlie this behavioural choice. CONCLUSIONS: Our preliminary data hint at a potential sensory switch from visual sensing during the day to silk-borne vibration sensing at night when vision is compromised. The described behaviour potentially is an effective anti-predator strategy either by acting as an early alarm system via vibration sensing or by bringing the animal out of reach for nocturnal predators. We propose tractable hypotheses to test an adaptive function of suspended resting. Further studies will shed light on the sensory challenges that animals face during resting phases and should target the mechanisms and strategies by which such challenges are overcome.

Author Correction: Sole coloration as an unusual aposematic signal in a Neotropical toad.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Sole coloration as an unusual aposematic signal in a Neotropical toad.

Many animals have evolved remarkable strategies to avoid predation. In diurnal, toxic harlequin toads (Atelopus) from the Amazon basin, we find a unique colour signal. Some Atelopus populations have striking red soles of the hands and feet, visible only when walking. When stationary, the toads are hard to detect despite their yellow-black dorsal coloration. Consequently, they switch between high and low conspicuousness. Interestingly, some populations lack the extra colour display of the soles. We found comprehensive support that the red coloration can act as an aposematic signal directed towards potential predators: red soles are significantly more conspicuous than soles lacking red coloration to avian predators and the presence of the red signal significantly increases detection. Further, toads with red soles show bolder behaviour by using higher sites in the vegetation than those lacking this signal. Field experiments hint at a lower attack risk for clay models with red soles than for those lacking the signal, in a population where the red soles naturally occur. We suggest that the absence of the signal may be explained by a higher overall attack risk or potential differences of predator community structure between populations.

Geographic range expansion of tetrodotoxin in amphibians - First record in Atelopus hoogmoedi from the Guiana Shield.

For the first time, alcohol extracts of Atelopus hoogmoedi from the Guiana Shield in Suriname and Guyana were analyzed for the presence of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and of its analogues by high resolution hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. One specimen from Suriname was found to contain TTX and 4-epiTTX. Using a monoclonal antibody-based immunohistochemical staining technique, TTX was localized mainly in the granular glands and epithelium of the skin, but not in internal organs except liver showing weak TTX-positive reaction. In two specimens collected in Guyana, none of the toxins were detected.

Tetrodotoxin.

In this Quick Guide, Lorentz et al. discuss the function of tetrodotoxin and its distribution in the animal kingdom.

Do poison frogs recognize chemical cues of the other sex or do they react to cues of stressed conspecifics?

Although anuran communication primarily takes place acoustically, chemical cues are also often used for intra- and intersexual communication in frogs. In the present study we analyzed the behavior of the poison frog Ranitomeya variabilis when presented chemical cues of same-sex or opposite-sex conspecifics. Chemical cues were obtained by keeping a single frog on a moist paper towel for about 47h. Afterwards two paper towels were offered to a test animal, one containing the chemical cues, the other containing rainwater only. We ran trials presenting female cues to males, males cues to males as well as male cues to females. The results of the trials were not significant in terms of intersexual communication. The overall response revealed a clear avoidance strategy which leads us to the assumption that disturbance cues unintentionally occurred during the experiment. The rather small size of the containers used to obtain chemical cues prior to the trials probably lead to confinement stress which consequently caused increased urination containing stress hormones that were detected by the test animals. This is the first proof of disturbance cues and their effects in adult anurans. The results of this study do not allow conclusions about inter- or intrasexual chemical communication of R. variabilis, but they allow implications and revisions for future experiments on this topic.